A preposition describes a relationship between other words in a sentence. In itself, a word like "in" or "after" is rather meaningless and hard to define in mere words. For instance, when you do try to define a preposition like "in" or "between" or "on," you invariably use your hands to show how something is situated in relationship to something else. Prepositions are nearly always combined with other words in structures called prepositional phrases.
Prepositional phrases can be made up of a million different words, but they tend to be built the same: a preposition followed by a determiner and an adjective or two, followed by a pronoun or noun (called the object of the preposition). This whole phrase, in turn, takes on a modifying role, acting as an adjective or an adverb, locating something in time and space, modifying a noun, or telling when or where or under what conditions something happened.
Consider the professor's desk and all the prepositional phrases we can use while talking about it.
You can sit before the desk (or in front of the desk). The professor can sit on the desk (when he's being informal) or behind the desk, and then his feet are under the desk or beneath the desk. He can stand beside the desk (meaning next to the desk), before the desk, between the desk and you, or even on the desk (if he's really strange). If he's clumsy, he can bump into the desk or try to walk through the desk (and stuff would fall off the desk). Passing his hands over the desk or resting his elbows upon the desk, he often looks across the desk and speaks of the desk or concerning the desk as if there were nothing else like the desk. Because he thinks of nothing except the desk, sometimes you wonder about the desk, what's in the desk, what he paid for the desk, and if he could live without the desk. You can walk toward the desk, to the desk, around the desk, by the desk, and even past the desk while he sits at the desk or leans against the desk.All of this happens, of course, in time: during the class, before the class, until the class, throughout the class, after the class, etc. And the professor can sit there in a bad mood [another adverbial construction].
Those words in bold blue font are all prepositions. Some prepositions do other things besides locate in space or time — "My brother is like my father." "Everyone in the class except me got the answer." — but nearly all of them modify in one way or another. It is possible for a preposition phrase to act as a noun — "During a church service is not a good time to discuss picnic plans" or "In the South Pacific is where I long to be" — but this is seldom appropriate in formal or academic writing.
C
You may have learned that ending a sentence with a preposition is a serious breach of grammatical etiquette. It doesn't take a grammarian to spot a sentence-ending preposition, so this is an easy rule to get caught up on (!). Although it is often easy to remedy the offending preposition, sometimes it isn't, and repair efforts sometimes result in a clumsy sentence. "Indicate the book you are quoting from" is not greatly improved with "Indicate from which book you are quoting." Based on shaky historical precedent, the rule itself is a latecomer to the rules of writing. Those who dislike the rule are fond of recalling Churchill's rejoinder: "That is nonsense up with which I shall not put." We should also remember the child's complaint: "What did you bring that book that I don't like to be read to out of up for?"
Is it any wonder that prepositions create such troubles for students for whom English is a second language? We say we are at the hospital to visit a friend who is in the hospital. We lie in bed but on the couch. We watch a film at the theater but on television. For native speakers, these little words present little difficulty, but try to learn another language, any other language, and you will quickly discover that prepositions are troublesome wherever you live and learn. This page contains some interesting (sometimes troublesome) prepositions with brief usage notes. To address all the potential difficulties with prepositions in idiomatic usage would require volumes, and the only way English language learners can begin to master the intricacies of preposition usage is through practice and paying close attention to speech and the written word. Keeping a good dictionary close at hand (to hand?) is an important first step.
Prepositions of Time: at, on, and in
We use at to designate specific times.The train is due at 12:15 p.m.
We use on to designate days and dates.My brother is coming on Monday.We're having a party on the Fourth of July.
We use in for nonspecific times during a day, a month, a season, or a year.She likes to jog in the morning.It's too cold in winter to run outside.He started the job in 1971.He's going to quit in August.
Prepositions of Place: at, on, and in
We use at for specific addresses.Grammar English lives at 55 Boretz Road in Durham.
We use on to designate names of streets, avenues, etc.Her house is on Boretz Road.
And we use in for the names of land-areas (towns, counties, states, countries, and continents).She lives in Durham.Durham is in Windham County.Windham County is in Connecticut.
Prepositions of Location: in, at, and onand No Preposition
IN
(the) bed
*the bedroom
the car(the) class
*the library
*school
*ATclass
*homethe library
*the officeschool
*work
ON
the bed*the ceilingthe floorthe horsethe planethe train
NO PREPOSITION
downstairs
downtown
inside
outside
upstairs
uptown
* You may sometimes use different prepositions for these locations.
Prepositions of Movement: to and No Preposition
We use to in order to express movement toward a place.They were driving to work together.She's going to the dentist's office this morning.
Toward and towards are also helpful prepositions to express movement. These are simply variant spellings of the same word; use whichever sounds better to you.We're moving toward the light.This is a big step towards the project's completion.
With the words home, downtown, uptown, inside, outside, downstairs, upstairs, we use no preposition.Grandma went upstairsGrandpa went home.They both went outside.
Prepositions of Time: for and since
We use for when we measure time (seconds, minutes, hours, days, months, years).He held his breath for seven minutes.She's lived there for seven years.The British and Irish have been quarreling for seven centuries.
We use since with a specific date or time.He's worked here since 1970.She's been sitting in the waiting room since two-thirty.
Prepositions with Nouns, Adjectives, and Verbs.
Prepositions are sometimes so firmly wedded to other words that they have practically become one word. (In fact, in other languages, such as German, they would have become one word.) This occurs in three categories: nouns, adjectives, and verbs.
NOUNS and PREPOSITIONS
approval ofawareness ofbelief inconcern forconfusion aboutdesire for
fondness forgrasp ofhatred ofhope forinterest inlove of
need forparticipation inreason forrespect forsuccess inunderstanding of
ADJECTIVES and PREPOSITIONS
afraid ofangry ataware ofcapable ofcareless aboutfamiliar with
fond ofhappy aboutinterested injealous ofmade ofmarried to
proud ofsimilar tosorry forsure oftired ofworried about
VERBS and PREPOSITIONS
apologize forask aboutask forbelong tobring upcare forfind out
give upgrow uplook forlook forward tolook upmake uppay for
prepare forstudy fortalk aboutthink abouttrust inwork forworry about
A combination of verb and preposition is called a phrasal verb. The word that is joined to the verb is then called a particle. Please refer to the brief section we have prepared on phrasal verbs for an explanation.
Idiomatic Expressions with Prepositions
agree to a proposal, with a person, on a price, in principle
argue about a matter, with a person, for or against a proposition
compare to to show likenesses, with to show differences (sometimes similarities)
correspond to a thing, with a person
differ from an unlike thing, with a person
live at an address, in a house or city, on a street, with other people
Unnecessary Prepositions
In everyday speech, we fall into some bad habits, using prepositions where they are not necessary. It would be a good idea to eliminate these words altogether, but we must be especially careful not to use them in formal, academic prose.
She met up with the new coach in the hallway.
The book fell off of the desk.
He threw the book out of the window.
She wouldn't let the cat inside of the house. [or use "in"]
Where did they go to?
Put the lamp in back of the couch. [use "behind" instead]
Where is your college at?
Prepositions in Parallel Form
(Click HERE for a definition and discussion of parallelism.) When two words or phrases are used in parallel and require the same preposition to be idiomatically correct, the preposition does not have to be used twice.You can wear that outfit in summer and in winter.The female was both attracted by and distracted by the male's dance.
However, when the idiomatic use of phrases calls for different prepositions, we must be careful not to omit one of them.The children were interested in and disgusted by the movie.It was clear that this player could both contribute to and learn from every game he played.He was fascinated by and enamored of this beguiling woman.
Sabtu, 27 Februari 2010
Passive voice
In the passive sentence, the object of an active verb becomes the subject of the passive verb.Only transitive verbs are used in the passive.
Intransitive verbs such as happen, sleep, come and seem cannot be used in the passive.
When rewriting active sentences in passive voice, note the following:
• the object of the active sentence becomes the subject of the passive sentence
• the finite form of the verb is changed (to be + past participle)
• the subject of the active sentence becomes the object of the passive sentence (or is dropped)
Agent
In a passive clause, we usually use a phrase beginning with by if we want to mention the agent - the person or thing that does the action, or that causes what happens.If you want to change an active sentence which has two objects into its passive forms, there are two ways:
1. Make its indirect object into the subject of the passive sentence.
2. Make its direct object into the subject of the passive sentence.Pattern: be + past participle
Example:
- The boy are listening to a story.The story was being told by grandfather
- Snow white eats a poisonous apple
A poisonous apple is eaten by snow white
- Snow white is eating a poisonous apple
A poisonous apple is being eaten by snow white
- Snow white has eaten a poisonous apple
A poisonous apple has been eaten by snow white
- Snow white ate a poisonous apple
A poisonous apple was eaten by snow white
- Snow white was eating a poisonous apple
A poisonous apple was being eaten by snow white
- Snow white had eaten a poisonous apple
A poisonous apple had been eaten by snow white
- Snow white will eat a poisonous apple
A poisonous apple will be eaten by snow white
- Snow white is going to eat a poisonous apple
A poisonous apple is going to be eaten by snow white
- Snow white will have eaten a poisonous apple
A poisonous apple will have been eaten by snow white
Intransitive verbs such as happen, sleep, come and seem cannot be used in the passive.
When rewriting active sentences in passive voice, note the following:
• the object of the active sentence becomes the subject of the passive sentence
• the finite form of the verb is changed (to be + past participle)
• the subject of the active sentence becomes the object of the passive sentence (or is dropped)
Agent
In a passive clause, we usually use a phrase beginning with by if we want to mention the agent - the person or thing that does the action, or that causes what happens.If you want to change an active sentence which has two objects into its passive forms, there are two ways:
1. Make its indirect object into the subject of the passive sentence.
2. Make its direct object into the subject of the passive sentence.Pattern: be + past participle
Example:
- The boy are listening to a story.The story was being told by grandfather
- Snow white eats a poisonous apple
A poisonous apple is eaten by snow white
- Snow white is eating a poisonous apple
A poisonous apple is being eaten by snow white
- Snow white has eaten a poisonous apple
A poisonous apple has been eaten by snow white
- Snow white ate a poisonous apple
A poisonous apple was eaten by snow white
- Snow white was eating a poisonous apple
A poisonous apple was being eaten by snow white
- Snow white had eaten a poisonous apple
A poisonous apple had been eaten by snow white
- Snow white will eat a poisonous apple
A poisonous apple will be eaten by snow white
- Snow white is going to eat a poisonous apple
A poisonous apple is going to be eaten by snow white
- Snow white will have eaten a poisonous apple
A poisonous apple will have been eaten by snow white
ASKING IF SOMEONE REMEMBERS OR NOT
Formal expressions:
- I wonder if you remember.....
- You remember...., don’t you?
- You haven’t forgotten...., have you?
- Don’t you remember.....?
- Do you happen to remember it now?
Ways to respond:
- Let me think, yes, I remember.
- I remember especially the scenery
- I’ll never forget that
- I’ll always remember.
- I can remember it clearly.
Informal expressions:
- Remember the old house we used to live in?
- Remember that?
- I’m sorry I don’t remember
Ways to respond:
- Hold on. Yes, got it!
- I know.....
- It’s coming back to me now.
Respond if you forget:
- Sorry, I’ve completely forgotten.
- I’m affraid I forget.
- I really can’t remember.
- I’m afraid I have no memory of him
- Errr, let me think. No, it’s gone.
- Sorry, it slipped off my mind.
Example..It was Sunday morning, Roy got dressed and had breakfast quickly. he was ready to leave for school. Her mother was a little puzzled.
Mother : Hey...hey.... are you going to school?
Roy : Yes, Mom. I overslept. I’m in a hurry
Mother : You remember Sunday, don’t you?
Roy : Oh, my god. I thought it’s a school day !
- I wonder if you remember.....
- You remember...., don’t you?
- You haven’t forgotten...., have you?
- Don’t you remember.....?
- Do you happen to remember it now?
Ways to respond:
- Let me think, yes, I remember.
- I remember especially the scenery
- I’ll never forget that
- I’ll always remember.
- I can remember it clearly.
Informal expressions:
- Remember the old house we used to live in?
- Remember that?
- I’m sorry I don’t remember
Ways to respond:
- Hold on. Yes, got it!
- I know.....
- It’s coming back to me now.
Respond if you forget:
- Sorry, I’ve completely forgotten.
- I’m affraid I forget.
- I really can’t remember.
- I’m afraid I have no memory of him
- Errr, let me think. No, it’s gone.
- Sorry, it slipped off my mind.
Example..It was Sunday morning, Roy got dressed and had breakfast quickly. he was ready to leave for school. Her mother was a little puzzled.
Mother : Hey...hey.... are you going to school?
Roy : Yes, Mom. I overslept. I’m in a hurry
Mother : You remember Sunday, don’t you?
Roy : Oh, my god. I thought it’s a school day !
Offering
The expression of “ Would you like....”is normally used for offering something to someone.
Putra : Would you like a cup of tea, Mr . Kane?
Mr. Kane : Yes, please. Thank you. Hmmm...this coffe tastes good....and smells fragrant too.......
Putra: Thank you. I’m glad you like it.
Ways to say it
* Would you like a cup of coffee, Mr. Green?
* Should I get you a bottle of water?
* Could I offer you a glass of milk, Mr. kiki?
* Would you care some salad?
Offering to friends:
* Want some?
* Have some?
* Chocolate?
* Grab some for yourself
Less formal expressions:
* Would you like to have a pancake?
* Why don't you have some lemonade?
* What can I get for you?
* What will you have?Declining an offering
* No, thanks.
* No, really won't, thanks
* Not for me, thanks.
Accepting an offering:
* Thank you.
* Yes, please
* I'd like it very much* That would be very nice
Simple Future
Simple Future tense is used to describing job or action that will to do (happened) at future.
Formation of sentences
1. Positive( + ) S + shall/ will + V1
Ex :- I shall clean the room
- We will go to schoolOr( + ) S + be + going to + V1
Ex :- I am going to play tennis- He is going to write a story
Notes : "shall" just can use for subject "I and we"
2. Negative( - ) S + shall/ will + not+ V1
Ex :- I shan't buy a shirt- He won't clean the room
Or( - ) S + be + not +going to + V1
Ex : I am not going to give a present
Notes : shall not = shan't, will not = won't
3. Interrogative( ? ) Shall/ will + S + V ?
Ex : Will we playing tennis ?
Or( ? ) Be + S + going to + V ?
Ex : Is she going to write story ?
Formation of sentences
1. Positive( + ) S + shall/ will + V1
Ex :- I shall clean the room
- We will go to schoolOr( + ) S + be + going to + V1
Ex :- I am going to play tennis- He is going to write a story
Notes : "shall" just can use for subject "I and we"
2. Negative( - ) S + shall/ will + not+ V1
Ex :- I shan't buy a shirt- He won't clean the room
Or( - ) S + be + not +going to + V1
Ex : I am not going to give a present
Notes : shall not = shan't, will not = won't
3. Interrogative( ? ) Shall/ will + S + V ?
Ex : Will we playing tennis ?
Or( ? ) Be + S + going to + V ?
Ex : Is she going to write story ?
Noun Prhase
1. Noun phrases is constraction function as subject and object .2. Noun phrases is either a single noun or pronoun or any group of wordscontaining a noun or a pronoun that function together as a noun orpronoun, as the subject or object of a verb.
- Kinds of noun phrases :
a.Noun + Noun, example : Office boy
b.Verb + Noun, example : Take a bath.
c.Gerund + Noun, example : Throwing balld.
d.Pronoun + Noun, example : My booke.
e.Adjective + Noun, example : Black board
f. Determiner + Noun, example : A pen
- The noun phrases in English composed petenhally of 3 parts, there are :
a. Head : The most usual kind of head of a noun phrases.
b. Pre Modification : Consists of a number of word classes in a specific order.
c. Post Modification : Must commonly used not by specific word classes or subclasses.
Example
1 :Shaggy : Do you like books ?
Jojo : Yes, I like them.
Shaggy : Do you like books over there?
Jojo : Yes, they are nice.
Shaggy : Do you like the book which I brought yesterday?
Jojo : Yes, I like it.
Example 2 :
- Nicko was late( Nicko is the noun phrase functioning as the subject of the verb)- Some noun phrase are short :* The student- Some are long :* The very tall education consultant.
- Kinds of noun phrases :
a.Noun + Noun, example : Office boy
b.Verb + Noun, example : Take a bath.
c.Gerund + Noun, example : Throwing balld.
d.Pronoun + Noun, example : My booke.
e.Adjective + Noun, example : Black board
f. Determiner + Noun, example : A pen
- The noun phrases in English composed petenhally of 3 parts, there are :
a. Head : The most usual kind of head of a noun phrases.
b. Pre Modification : Consists of a number of word classes in a specific order.
c. Post Modification : Must commonly used not by specific word classes or subclasses.
Example
1 :Shaggy : Do you like books ?
Jojo : Yes, I like them.
Shaggy : Do you like books over there?
Jojo : Yes, they are nice.
Shaggy : Do you like the book which I brought yesterday?
Jojo : Yes, I like it.
Example 2 :
- Nicko was late( Nicko is the noun phrase functioning as the subject of the verb)- Some noun phrase are short :* The student- Some are long :* The very tall education consultant.
Finite verbs
Definition:Finite verbs (sometimes called main verbs) are verb forms suitable for use in predicates in that they carry inflections or other formal characteristics limiting their number(singular / plural), person, and tense(past / present etc). Finite verbs can function on their own as the core of an independent sentence.
For example
I walked, they walk, and she walks are finite verbs* (to) walk is an infinitive.
I lived in Germany.* "I" is the subject. "Lived" describes what the subject did. "Lived" is a finite verb. Examples
The truck demolished the restaurant.
The leaves were yellow and sickly.
For example
I walked, they walk, and she walks are finite verbs* (to) walk is an infinitive.
I lived in Germany.* "I" is the subject. "Lived" describes what the subject did. "Lived" is a finite verb. Examples
The truck demolished the restaurant.
The leaves were yellow and sickly.
News item
News item is factual text which informs the reader about events of the day which are considered newsworthy or important
Social function of news item is : to inform readers, listeners or viewers about events of the day which are considered newsworthy or important
- Generic Structure
* Newsworthy event (s) : recount the event in summary form
*Background Event (s) : elaborate what happened, to WHOM, in WHAT circumstances
* Sources : comment by participants in, withesses to and authorities to and authorities expert on the event
- Signification grammar features :
* Short, telegraphic information about story captured in headline
* Generally using simple past tense
* Use of material processes to retell the event
* Using action verbs , (,) : were, run, go, kill, etc
* Using saying verbs , (.) : say, tell
* Focus on circumstances
* Use of projecting verbal processes in sources stages
There are some rules that can help to make newspaper headlines more comprehensible
1. The passive voice is used with out the approprianto form of “be”
2. It is unusually to find complex forms, generally the simple present form is used
3. The present progressive tense is used, usually to describe something that is changing orde ueloping, but the auxiliary verb is usually left out
4. To refer to the future, headlines often use the infinitive
5. Headlines are not always complete sentences
Social function of news item is : to inform readers, listeners or viewers about events of the day which are considered newsworthy or important
- Generic Structure
* Newsworthy event (s) : recount the event in summary form
*Background Event (s) : elaborate what happened, to WHOM, in WHAT circumstances
* Sources : comment by participants in, withesses to and authorities to and authorities expert on the event
- Signification grammar features :
* Short, telegraphic information about story captured in headline
* Generally using simple past tense
* Use of material processes to retell the event
* Using action verbs , (,) : were, run, go, kill, etc
* Using saying verbs , (.) : say, tell
* Focus on circumstances
* Use of projecting verbal processes in sources stages
There are some rules that can help to make newspaper headlines more comprehensible
1. The passive voice is used with out the approprianto form of “be”
2. It is unusually to find complex forms, generally the simple present form is used
3. The present progressive tense is used, usually to describe something that is changing orde ueloping, but the auxiliary verb is usually left out
4. To refer to the future, headlines often use the infinitive
5. Headlines are not always complete sentences
Introuctary it
A To understand this lesson is easy.
B It is easy to understand this lesson.
In this pattern, it has no meaning. It is used only to fill the subject position in the sentence. Thus, it is called introductory “it”.
A and B mean the same thing, but sentence B is more common and useful than A. A was introduce mainly to make the meaning of C easier to understand.
Introductory “it” can fill the position both of the subject and object.
Introductory “it” as a subject:
To watch musical programs is pleasant.
It is pleasant to watch musical program.
To play football must be fun.
It is fun to play football.
B It is easy to understand this lesson.
In this pattern, it has no meaning. It is used only to fill the subject position in the sentence. Thus, it is called introductory “it”.
A and B mean the same thing, but sentence B is more common and useful than A. A was introduce mainly to make the meaning of C easier to understand.
Introductory “it” can fill the position both of the subject and object.
Introductory “it” as a subject:
To watch musical programs is pleasant.
It is pleasant to watch musical program.
To play football must be fun.
It is fun to play football.
Descriptie text
The aim of descriptive text: to describe the characteristics of particular person, thing, or place.
Text Structure:
▪ Identification
identifies thing, person, place, phenomenon to be described.
▪ Description
gives the information of particular thing, person, or place being discussed or describes parts, qualities, or characteristics.
Grammatical Features:
▪ Who? What?
▪ Using Linking verb and Simple Present Tense
▪ Epithet: adjective or adjective phrase
▪ Attributive (the)
▪ Use of attributive and identifying process▪ Focus on specific participants
▪ Frequent use of epithets and classifier in nominal groups
Example of Descriptive Text:
Natural Bridge National ParkNatural Bridge National Park is luscious tropical rainforest. It is located 110 kilometers south of Brisbane and is reached by following the Pacific Highway to Nerang and then by travelling through the Numimbah Valley. This scenic roadway lies in the shadow of the Lamington National Park.The phenomenon of the rock formed into a natural ‘arch’ and the cave through which a waterfall cascades is a short one-kilometer walk below a dense rainforest canopy from the main picnic area. Swimming is permitted in the rock pools. Night-time visitors to the cave will discover the unique feature of the glow worms.Picnic areas offer toilets, barbeque, shelter sheds, water and fireplaces; however, overnight camping is not permitted.
Text Structure:
▪ Identification
identifies thing, person, place, phenomenon to be described.
▪ Description
gives the information of particular thing, person, or place being discussed or describes parts, qualities, or characteristics.
Grammatical Features:
▪ Who? What?
▪ Using Linking verb and Simple Present Tense
▪ Epithet: adjective or adjective phrase
▪ Attributive (the)
▪ Use of attributive and identifying process▪ Focus on specific participants
▪ Frequent use of epithets and classifier in nominal groups
Example of Descriptive Text:
Natural Bridge National ParkNatural Bridge National Park is luscious tropical rainforest. It is located 110 kilometers south of Brisbane and is reached by following the Pacific Highway to Nerang and then by travelling through the Numimbah Valley. This scenic roadway lies in the shadow of the Lamington National Park.The phenomenon of the rock formed into a natural ‘arch’ and the cave through which a waterfall cascades is a short one-kilometer walk below a dense rainforest canopy from the main picnic area. Swimming is permitted in the rock pools. Night-time visitors to the cave will discover the unique feature of the glow worms.Picnic areas offer toilets, barbeque, shelter sheds, water and fireplaces; however, overnight camping is not permitted.
Direct and Indirect Speech
When using indirect or reported speech, the form changes. Usually indirect speech is introduced by the verb said, as in I said, Bill said, or they said. Using the verb say in this tense, indicates that something was said in the past. In these cases, the main verb in the reported sentence is put in the past. If the main verb is already in a past tense, then the tense changes to another past tense; it can almost be seen as moving even further into the past.
Verb tense changes also characterize other situations using indirect speech. Note the changes shown in the chart and see the table below for examples. With indirect speech, the use of that is optional.
Direct Speech
Þ
Indirect Speech
simple presentHe said, “I go to school every day.”
Þ
simple pastHe said (that) he went to school every day.
simple past He said, “I went to school every day.”
Þ
past perfectHe said (that) he had gone to school every day.
present perfect He said, “I have gone to school every day.”
Þ
past perfect He said (that) he had gone to school every day.
present progressiveHe said, “I am going to school every day.”
Þ
past progressiveHe said (that) he was going to school every day.
past progressiveHe said, “I was going to school every day.”
Þ
perfect progressiveHe said (that) he had been going to school every day,
future (will)He said, “I will go to school every day.”
Þ
would + verb nameHe said (that) he would go to school every day.
future (going to)He said, “I am going to school every day.”
Þ
present progressiveHe said (that) he is going to school every day.
past progressiveHe said (that) he was going to school every day
Direct Speech
Þ
Indirect Speech
auxiliary + verb nameHe said, “Do you go to school every day?”He said, “Where do you go to school?”
Þ
simple pastHe asked me if I went to school every day.*He asked me where I went to school.
imperativeHe said, “Go to school every day.”
Þ
infinitiveHe said to go to school every day.
*Note than when a Yes/No question is being asked in direct speech, then a construction with if or whether is used. If a WH question is being asked, then use the WH to introduce the clause. Also note that with indirect speech, these are examples of embedded questions.
The situation changes if instead of the common said another part of the very to say is used. In that case the verb tenses usually remain the same. Some examples of this situation are given below.
Direct Speech
Þ
Indirect Speech
simple present + simple presentHe says, “I go to school every day.”
Þ
simple present + simple presentHe says (that) he goes to school every day.
present perfect + simple presentHe has said, “I go to school every day.”
Þ
present perfect + simple presentHe has said (that) he goes to school every day.
past progressive + simple pastHe was saying, “I went to school every day.”
Þ
past progressive + simple pastHe was saying (that) he went to school every day.
past progressive + past perfectHe was saying (that) he had gone to school every day.
future + simple presentHe will say, “I go to school every day.”
Þ
future + simple presentHe will say (that) he goes to school every day.
Another situation is the one in which modal constructions are used. If the verb said is used, then the form of the modal, or another modal that has a past meaning is used.
Direct Speech
Þ
Indirect Speech
canHe said, “I can go to school every day.”
Þ
couldHe said (that) he could go to school every day.
mayHe said, “I may go to school every day.”
Þ
mightHe said (that) he might go to school every day.
mightHe said, “I might go to school every day.”
mustHe said, “I must go to school every day.”
Þ
had toHe said (that) he had to go to school every day.
have toHe said, “I have to go to school every day.”
shouldHe said, “I should go to school every day.”
Þ
shouldHe said (that) he should go to school every day.
ought toHe said, “I ought to go to school every day.”
Þ
ought toHe said (that) he ought to go to school every day.
While not all of the possibilities have been listed here, there are enough to provide examples of the main rules governing the use of indirect or reported speech. For other situations, try to extrapolate from the examples here, or better still, refer to a good grammar text or reference book.
Some other verbs that can be used to introduce direct speech are: ask, report, tell, announce, suggest, and inquire. They are not used interchangeably; check a grammar or usage book for further information.
When using indirect or reported speech, the form changes. Usually indirect speech is introduced by the verb said, as in I said, Bill said, or they said. Using the verb say in this tense, indicates that something was said in the past. In these cases, the main verb in the reported sentence is put in the past. If the main verb is already in a past tense, then the tense changes to another past tense; it can almost be seen as moving even further into the past.
Verb tense changes also characterize other situations using indirect speech. Note the changes shown in the chart and see the table below for examples. With indirect speech, the use of that is optional.
Direct Speech
Þ
Indirect Speech
simple presentHe said, “I go to school every day.”
Þ
simple pastHe said (that) he went to school every day.
simple past He said, “I went to school every day.”
Þ
past perfectHe said (that) he had gone to school every day.
present perfect He said, “I have gone to school every day.”
Þ
past perfect He said (that) he had gone to school every day.
present progressiveHe said, “I am going to school every day.”
Þ
past progressiveHe said (that) he was going to school every day.
past progressiveHe said, “I was going to school every day.”
Þ
perfect progressiveHe said (that) he had been going to school every day,
future (will)He said, “I will go to school every day.”
Þ
would + verb nameHe said (that) he would go to school every day.
future (going to)He said, “I am going to school every day.”
Þ
present progressiveHe said (that) he is going to school every day.
past progressiveHe said (that) he was going to school every day
Direct Speech
Þ
Indirect Speech
auxiliary + verb nameHe said, “Do you go to school every day?”He said, “Where do you go to school?”
Þ
simple pastHe asked me if I went to school every day.*He asked me where I went to school.
imperativeHe said, “Go to school every day.”
Þ
infinitiveHe said to go to school every day.
*Note than when a Yes/No question is being asked in direct speech, then a construction with if or whether is used. If a WH question is being asked, then use the WH to introduce the clause. Also note that with indirect speech, these are examples of embedded questions.
The situation changes if instead of the common said another part of the very to say is used. In that case the verb tenses usually remain the same. Some examples of this situation are given below.
Direct Speech
Þ
Indirect Speech
simple present + simple presentHe says, “I go to school every day.”
Þ
simple present + simple presentHe says (that) he goes to school every day.
present perfect + simple presentHe has said, “I go to school every day.”
Þ
present perfect + simple presentHe has said (that) he goes to school every day.
past progressive + simple pastHe was saying, “I went to school every day.”
Þ
past progressive + simple pastHe was saying (that) he went to school every day.
past progressive + past perfectHe was saying (that) he had gone to school every day.
future + simple presentHe will say, “I go to school every day.”
Þ
future + simple presentHe will say (that) he goes to school every day.
Another situation is the one in which modal constructions are used. If the verb said is used, then the form of the modal, or another modal that has a past meaning is used.
Direct Speech
Þ
Indirect Speech
canHe said, “I can go to school every day.”
Þ
couldHe said (that) he could go to school every day.
mayHe said, “I may go to school every day.”
Þ
mightHe said (that) he might go to school every day.
mightHe said, “I might go to school every day.”
mustHe said, “I must go to school every day.”
Þ
had toHe said (that) he had to go to school every day.
have toHe said, “I have to go to school every day.”
shouldHe said, “I should go to school every day.”
Þ
shouldHe said (that) he should go to school every day.
ought toHe said, “I ought to go to school every day.”
Þ
ought toHe said (that) he ought to go to school every day.
While not all of the possibilities have been listed here, there are enough to provide examples of the main rules governing the use of indirect or reported speech. For other situations, try to extrapolate from the examples here, or better still, refer to a good grammar text or reference book.
Some other verbs that can be used to introduce direct speech are: ask, report, tell, announce, suggest, and inquire. They are not used interchangeably; check a grammar or usage book for further information.
Modals in the past form
Modals
present Past
can could
will would
shall should
may might
1. Could + Verb base
to offer suggestions or possibilities
Example:
Patrick : Oh, no! I left my shorts.
Spongebob : Don’t worry, Patrick. You could borrow my shorts.
Asmi : I’m having trouble with English.
Randah : Why don’t you ask Agnes? Perhaps she could help you.
to indicate that the ability existed in the past but doesn’t exist now.
Example:
Tasya : Ras, can you climb the durian tree?
Rasya : Well… I could climb durian tree when I was so young.
But I think I’m too heavy to climb it.
Mia : Grandpa, what could you do when you were younger?
Grandpa : When I was younger, I could swim across the big river
very well and faster.
to express polite requests
Example: Could I borrow your pencil (please)?
Could you lend me your jacket now?
Could you please close the door?
Could you pass the salt?
2. Would + Verb base
for an action that was repeated regularly in the past
Example:
When I was a child, I would visit my grandparents every weekend.
On Sundays, when I was a child, we would all get up early and go fishing.
insert rather into the pattern and use this expression to express preferences
Example:
Justin : What would you rather do in the weekend, go to the party or stay home?
Eminem : I would rather go to the party than stay home.
Angel : Which country would you rather visit?
Maria : I would rather visit Italia than Somalia.
to express polite requests
Example:
Andi : Would you mind cycling with me, Kala?
Kala : No, not at all. It would be nice.
Mikola : Would you please pass the helmet, Bella?
Bella : No problem
3. Should + Verb base
to give definite advice (advisability)
Example:
Daddy : Putra, you should study tonight.
You will have English test tomorrow, won’t you?
Putra : I will, Dad.
Debby : You should paint your house, Bobby. It looks terrible.
Bobby : Yes, I know I should.
to express the subject’s obligation or duty
Example: You should practice for more than an hour. (to musical friend)
They shouldn’t allow parking here; the street is too narrow.
Application should be sent before March 25th.
4. Might + Verb base
to tell possibilities
Example:
David : Where is Deddy?
Copperfield : He might be in the studio with Kalina.
To express polite requests
Example:
Tian : Might I borrow your coat?
Ringgo : I’m afraid not. It has been brought by Donny for weeks and
I don’t know when he’ll return it.
present Past
can could
will would
shall should
may might
1. Could + Verb base
to offer suggestions or possibilities
Example:
Patrick : Oh, no! I left my shorts.
Spongebob : Don’t worry, Patrick. You could borrow my shorts.
Asmi : I’m having trouble with English.
Randah : Why don’t you ask Agnes? Perhaps she could help you.
to indicate that the ability existed in the past but doesn’t exist now.
Example:
Tasya : Ras, can you climb the durian tree?
Rasya : Well… I could climb durian tree when I was so young.
But I think I’m too heavy to climb it.
Mia : Grandpa, what could you do when you were younger?
Grandpa : When I was younger, I could swim across the big river
very well and faster.
to express polite requests
Example: Could I borrow your pencil (please)?
Could you lend me your jacket now?
Could you please close the door?
Could you pass the salt?
2. Would + Verb base
for an action that was repeated regularly in the past
Example:
When I was a child, I would visit my grandparents every weekend.
On Sundays, when I was a child, we would all get up early and go fishing.
insert rather into the pattern and use this expression to express preferences
Example:
Justin : What would you rather do in the weekend, go to the party or stay home?
Eminem : I would rather go to the party than stay home.
Angel : Which country would you rather visit?
Maria : I would rather visit Italia than Somalia.
to express polite requests
Example:
Andi : Would you mind cycling with me, Kala?
Kala : No, not at all. It would be nice.
Mikola : Would you please pass the helmet, Bella?
Bella : No problem
3. Should + Verb base
to give definite advice (advisability)
Example:
Daddy : Putra, you should study tonight.
You will have English test tomorrow, won’t you?
Putra : I will, Dad.
Debby : You should paint your house, Bobby. It looks terrible.
Bobby : Yes, I know I should.
to express the subject’s obligation or duty
Example: You should practice for more than an hour. (to musical friend)
They shouldn’t allow parking here; the street is too narrow.
Application should be sent before March 25th.
4. Might + Verb base
to tell possibilities
Example:
David : Where is Deddy?
Copperfield : He might be in the studio with Kalina.
To express polite requests
Example:
Tian : Might I borrow your coat?
Ringgo : I’m afraid not. It has been brought by Donny for weeks and
I don’t know when he’ll return it.
Narrative text
Narrative text is a text which contains about story (fiction/non fiction/tales/folktales/ fables/myths/epic) and in its plot consists of climax of the story (complication) then followed by the resolution.
Generic Structures: Orientation - Complication - Evaluation (optional) - Resolution
Orientation: it is about WHO, WHEN, and WHERE the story happened.Evaluation: is optional; it is usually used to make the story more interesting.Complication: it is about the conflict or the big problem of the story. Complication is the part of the story in which there is a conflict among the characters of the story (it is possible to make more than one conflict in a complication), and it is the climax of the story (the big problem in the story). A story can have more than one complication.Resolution: it is the solution of the problem. It can be a happy or sad ending. In Resolution, the solution or the way out of the conflict/ the big problem must be written.
Coda: it is the change of one of the character or two, or the meaning of the story that can be caught as a moral value of life.
Example: The story of Cinderella, Snow White, Snow Maiden, The Little Pear Girl, The Ugly Duckling, etc.
Example of narrative text :
Rapunzel
A long time ago there lived a young couple, a man and his wife, his wife was expecting their baby. She wanted a plant that only grew in her neighbor's garden, she wanted it so much. She even intended to steal it herself, but later on, she sent her husband to steal it.Unfortunately, mother Gothel, the owner of the garden, caught him doing it. She was a witch. Then, mother Gothel forced the couple to give their first baby to her.A few months later, the baby was born. It was a girl and named Rapunzel. Soon, this baby was taken away to live with mother Gothel. Rapunzel grew to be a beautiful young girl with her long golden hair. At first she was cared for in a normal way. When she reached puberty, she was locked in the forest. It could only be entered by climbing on Rapunzel's long hair. To cheer herself up, she loved to sing.One day, a young prince was out hunting. He stumbled upon the tower. He heard Rapunzel's beautiful voice. He decided that he must meet her. He spied and, by watching Mother Gothel, learned the words he has to say to have Rapunzel drop her hair. The Prince visited her often and the two fell in love.Then, Rapunzel; made a plan to escape from the tower. She wanted to be with the prince. She asked the prince to bring her a skein of silk each time he visited. She might weave a ladder for her escape. Unfortunately, Mother Gothel caught on Then, she banished Rapunzel to the desert. She prince blind and he marred the earth searching for his love.
Eventually, they found each other, and prince's eyes were healed by Rapunzel's tears of happiness.
Generic Structures: Orientation - Complication - Evaluation (optional) - Resolution
Orientation: it is about WHO, WHEN, and WHERE the story happened.Evaluation: is optional; it is usually used to make the story more interesting.Complication: it is about the conflict or the big problem of the story. Complication is the part of the story in which there is a conflict among the characters of the story (it is possible to make more than one conflict in a complication), and it is the climax of the story (the big problem in the story). A story can have more than one complication.Resolution: it is the solution of the problem. It can be a happy or sad ending. In Resolution, the solution or the way out of the conflict/ the big problem must be written.
Coda: it is the change of one of the character or two, or the meaning of the story that can be caught as a moral value of life.
Example: The story of Cinderella, Snow White, Snow Maiden, The Little Pear Girl, The Ugly Duckling, etc.
Example of narrative text :
Rapunzel
A long time ago there lived a young couple, a man and his wife, his wife was expecting their baby. She wanted a plant that only grew in her neighbor's garden, she wanted it so much. She even intended to steal it herself, but later on, she sent her husband to steal it.Unfortunately, mother Gothel, the owner of the garden, caught him doing it. She was a witch. Then, mother Gothel forced the couple to give their first baby to her.A few months later, the baby was born. It was a girl and named Rapunzel. Soon, this baby was taken away to live with mother Gothel. Rapunzel grew to be a beautiful young girl with her long golden hair. At first she was cared for in a normal way. When she reached puberty, she was locked in the forest. It could only be entered by climbing on Rapunzel's long hair. To cheer herself up, she loved to sing.One day, a young prince was out hunting. He stumbled upon the tower. He heard Rapunzel's beautiful voice. He decided that he must meet her. He spied and, by watching Mother Gothel, learned the words he has to say to have Rapunzel drop her hair. The Prince visited her often and the two fell in love.Then, Rapunzel; made a plan to escape from the tower. She wanted to be with the prince. She asked the prince to bring her a skein of silk each time he visited. She might weave a ladder for her escape. Unfortunately, Mother Gothel caught on Then, she banished Rapunzel to the desert. She prince blind and he marred the earth searching for his love.
Eventually, they found each other, and prince's eyes were healed by Rapunzel's tears of happiness.
ASKING FOR INFORMATION
There are a number of formulas used when asking for information in English.
Here are some of the most common:
* Could you tell me...?
* Do you know...?
* Do you happen to know...?
* I'd like to know...
* Could you find out...?
* I'm interested in...
* I'm looking for..
These two forms are used for asking for information on the telephone:
* I'm calling to find out...
* I'm calling about...
Here are some of the most common:
* Could you tell me...?
* Do you know...?
* Do you happen to know...?
* I'd like to know...
* Could you find out...?
* I'm interested in...
* I'm looking for..
These two forms are used for asking for information on the telephone:
* I'm calling to find out...
* I'm calling about...
Vocabulary around the house
Build Up :Attic =People store things in the attic.
Ballroom =A room in stately homes where rich people dance and concerts are held.Box Room =A small room used for storage.Cellar =Underneath the house.Cloakroom =A small room where people put their coats.Conservatory = A greenhouse attached to a house for the display of plants.
Dining Room =A room where people eat.Drawing Room =A room in stately homes where rich people entertain.
Games Room = A room in large houses where games are played.Hall = The entrance passage to a house.
Larder =A small room used for the storage of food.
Library =A room where books are kept.
Lounge =Another name for living room.
Music Room =A room where people play music.
Office =A room where people work.
Pantry =A small room used to store kitchen and dining items.Parlour =Old fashioned word for living room.
Sitting Room =Another name for living room.
Spare Room/Guest Room =A room where guests sleep.
Toilet = A room where people go to the toilet (often known as WC)
Utility Room =A room where appliances such as washing machines are used
Ballroom =A room in stately homes where rich people dance and concerts are held.Box Room =A small room used for storage.Cellar =Underneath the house.Cloakroom =A small room where people put their coats.Conservatory = A greenhouse attached to a house for the display of plants.
Dining Room =A room where people eat.Drawing Room =A room in stately homes where rich people entertain.
Games Room = A room in large houses where games are played.Hall = The entrance passage to a house.
Larder =A small room used for the storage of food.
Library =A room where books are kept.
Lounge =Another name for living room.
Music Room =A room where people play music.
Office =A room where people work.
Pantry =A small room used to store kitchen and dining items.Parlour =Old fashioned word for living room.
Sitting Room =Another name for living room.
Spare Room/Guest Room =A room where guests sleep.
Toilet = A room where people go to the toilet (often known as WC)
Utility Room =A room where appliances such as washing machines are used
Invitation(written)
Invitation is a way to invite someone or more to go to a place or to do something.
There are two types of invitation :
a. Formal Invitation
b. Informal Invitation
How to Write An Invitation :
1.
Before you write an invitation, decide on the tone, voice and level of formality, based on the event itself. This will dictate whether you hand-write the cards or have them printed, and whether you choose A preprinted or personalized invitation.
2.
Choose the type of invite you want, and order or buy a few more than you think you'll need. This will permit you to add some guests to your list at the last minute, if necessary. For small parties, you may want to hand-write the invitations on stationery or blank cards. For large gatherings, consider ordering printed invitations.
3.
Determine the wording of your invite based on the level of formality. For example, a formal invitation might say, 'Dr. and Mrs. Stanley request the pleasure of your company,' whereas a more casual note might say, 'Please join us.'
4.
Include the names of the host and/or hostess, as well as the place (with street address), time, date and purpose of the occasion, even if it's a simple get-together.
5.
Make sure to add RSVP information at the bottom of the invite if you need to know who will be attending; for example, 'RSVP' followed by your telephone number.
6
Include a respond-by date on a formal invitation so you can get an accurate head count in time to adjust the amount of food, number of place settings and room size. For a wedding, charity function or other formal event, consider including a response card and a stamped, self-addressed envelope inside the envelope containing your invite.
7.
Mail invitations three weeks before most events, four weeks before a formal affair and three months before a wedding, to allow for airline reservations. For events held during the December holidays, send invitations around Thanksgiving.
What does R.S.V.P. mean?
R.S.V.P. stands for a French phrase, "répondez, s'il vous plaît," which means "please reply.“ The person sending the invitation would like you to tell him or her whether you accept or decline the invitation. That is, will you be coming to the event or not?
There are two types of invitation :
a. Formal Invitation
b. Informal Invitation
How to Write An Invitation :
1.
Before you write an invitation, decide on the tone, voice and level of formality, based on the event itself. This will dictate whether you hand-write the cards or have them printed, and whether you choose A preprinted or personalized invitation.
2.
Choose the type of invite you want, and order or buy a few more than you think you'll need. This will permit you to add some guests to your list at the last minute, if necessary. For small parties, you may want to hand-write the invitations on stationery or blank cards. For large gatherings, consider ordering printed invitations.
3.
Determine the wording of your invite based on the level of formality. For example, a formal invitation might say, 'Dr. and Mrs. Stanley request the pleasure of your company,' whereas a more casual note might say, 'Please join us.'
4.
Include the names of the host and/or hostess, as well as the place (with street address), time, date and purpose of the occasion, even if it's a simple get-together.
5.
Make sure to add RSVP information at the bottom of the invite if you need to know who will be attending; for example, 'RSVP' followed by your telephone number.
6
Include a respond-by date on a formal invitation so you can get an accurate head count in time to adjust the amount of food, number of place settings and room size. For a wedding, charity function or other formal event, consider including a response card and a stamped, self-addressed envelope inside the envelope containing your invite.
7.
Mail invitations three weeks before most events, four weeks before a formal affair and three months before a wedding, to allow for airline reservations. For events held during the December holidays, send invitations around Thanksgiving.
What does R.S.V.P. mean?
R.S.V.P. stands for a French phrase, "répondez, s'il vous plaît," which means "please reply.“ The person sending the invitation would like you to tell him or her whether you accept or decline the invitation. That is, will you be coming to the event or not?
Surprise and disbeliefs
Surprises or disbeliefs is an expression that we show/say when we know/hear/see something that rather difficult to believe.
Expressing Surprise: Responding:
· Wow! What a surprise! >> Yeah!
· That’s a surprise! >> It is.
· That’s very surprising! >> Yup!
· Really? >> Sure.
· What? >> It’s true.
· Are you serious? You must be joking! >> I’m serious.
· You’re kidding! >> No, I’m not.
· Fancy that! >> It is.
· I must say it surprises me. >> Does it?
· I find it hard to believe. >> It is, isn’t it?
Expressing Disbelief:
· I don’t believe it.
· It can’t be true.
· I can’t think of it.
· I don’t trust you.
Expressing Surprise: Responding:
· Wow! What a surprise! >> Yeah!
· That’s a surprise! >> It is.
· That’s very surprising! >> Yup!
· Really? >> Sure.
· What? >> It’s true.
· Are you serious? You must be joking! >> I’m serious.
· You’re kidding! >> No, I’m not.
· Fancy that! >> It is.
· I must say it surprises me. >> Does it?
· I find it hard to believe. >> It is, isn’t it?
Expressing Disbelief:
· I don’t believe it.
· It can’t be true.
· I can’t think of it.
· I don’t trust you.
Gratitude, Compliment & Congratulation
a. Congratulations is an expression that we use to give the congratulation utterance when he/she succeeds in doing something.
Some expressions of congratulations:
· Congratulations!
· Congratulations on your success!
· I must congratulate you.
· Congrats! Finally, your dream comes true!
· Please accept my warmest congratulations.
· I’d like to be the first to congratulate you.
Expression of congratulations in special events:
· Happy birthday!
· Happy Lebaran Day/Happy led!
· Merry Christmas!
· Happy New Year!
· Happy Valentine!
· Happy anniversary!
b. Compliment is an expression that we show or say to express/give praise. Some people use compliments to “butter up” somebody or to flatter in order to increase good will, for example:
· On his/her general appearance
· If you notice something new about the person’s appearance
· When you visit someone’s house for the first time
· When other people do their best
Some expressions of compliment:
· What a nice dress!
· You look great.
· You look very nice/beautiful/handsome.
· I really must express my admiration for your dance.
· Good grades!
· Excellent!
· Nice work!
· Good job!
c. Gratitude is an expression that we show or say to express grateful feeling to other people. When speaking English, you say “thanks” very often. Please say “thank you” when people give you something, help you do something, wish you something and give you a compliment etc.
Some expression of gratitude:
· Thank you very much
· Thank you for your help
· I’m really very grateful to you
· You’re welcome
· Don’t mention it
· It’s a pleasure / My pleasure
· I want to express my gratitude to (my teacher, my father, etc)
· I am grateful to your help
Responding gratitude:
· It was the least I could do.
· You’re welcome
· No big deal.
· Don’t mention it.
· It’s a pleasure.
· That’s alright.
· Any time.
Some expressions of congratulations:
· Congratulations!
· Congratulations on your success!
· I must congratulate you.
· Congrats! Finally, your dream comes true!
· Please accept my warmest congratulations.
· I’d like to be the first to congratulate you.
Expression of congratulations in special events:
· Happy birthday!
· Happy Lebaran Day/Happy led!
· Merry Christmas!
· Happy New Year!
· Happy Valentine!
· Happy anniversary!
b. Compliment is an expression that we show or say to express/give praise. Some people use compliments to “butter up” somebody or to flatter in order to increase good will, for example:
· On his/her general appearance
· If you notice something new about the person’s appearance
· When you visit someone’s house for the first time
· When other people do their best
Some expressions of compliment:
· What a nice dress!
· You look great.
· You look very nice/beautiful/handsome.
· I really must express my admiration for your dance.
· Good grades!
· Excellent!
· Nice work!
· Good job!
c. Gratitude is an expression that we show or say to express grateful feeling to other people. When speaking English, you say “thanks” very often. Please say “thank you” when people give you something, help you do something, wish you something and give you a compliment etc.
Some expression of gratitude:
· Thank you very much
· Thank you for your help
· I’m really very grateful to you
· You’re welcome
· Don’t mention it
· It’s a pleasure / My pleasure
· I want to express my gratitude to (my teacher, my father, etc)
· I am grateful to your help
Responding gratitude:
· It was the least I could do.
· You’re welcome
· No big deal.
· Don’t mention it.
· It’s a pleasure.
· That’s alright.
· Any time.
The act or art of forming letters and characters on paper, wood, stine, or other material, for the purpose of recording the ideas which character an word express or of communacting them to other by visible signs.
Writing is not just a basic skill Different types of paragraphs
Here we have some definitions of different types of paragrahs:
Persuasive:
A persuasive paragraph gives the writer's opinion on the topic and tries to get the reader to agree with it . When you write a persuasive paragraph , you should give facts and examples to back up your opinion. Otherwise you won't persuade or convince your reader that your opinion is the right one.
Expositoy:
To give information about a topic. It may explain ideas, give directions, or show how to do something. An expository paragraph uses transition words (such as first , second, and most importantly in the model below). These words help guide the reader through the explanation.
Narrative:
You tell a story by sharing the details of an experience come alive.
Descriptive:
Paragraph describes a person , place , thing , or an idea. When you write a descriptive paragraph, you should use words that help your readers see , hear , smell, taste , and feel what you are describing. You should tell your readers what colors things are how big things are , what things sound like , ect. Your readers should feel as if they are right there with you.
Tips Writing a good story
When you write a story make sure you include a setting , plot , atmosphere , character traits and goals. Try not to introduce all the characters at once one point in the story. Make sure you explain the characters with colorful language, such as intelligent , ambitious , contientous , etc., instead of words such as nice , smart , kind, ect.Before you write your story think about what type of story it's going to be such as, gothic (scary), mystery , and comedy. Your story should always have a conclusion at the end of your story. You should have mature vocabulary in your story. This means that you should expand your resources in explaining what words mean. Also, use proper punctuation. Punctuation is what you end your sentences in, such as . ? !. Put a "?" when the sentence asks something , put a period when the sentence is stating , declaring , or demanding something. Use an "!" when the sentence is saying something exciting or shocking. Most importantly use colorful language.
In your story you should try to use similes. A simile is a figure of speech that uses the words "as" or "like." Figures of speech are used like adjectives or adverbs. They modify or describe a person , place , thing , or action word with a colorful and often visual term or phrase. Creative writers and poets make good use of these.
For example:
- as soft as old leather
- as musical as a flute
- sparkled like diamonds.
In your story you should also include metaphors. Metaphors are figures of speech that compare two things but do not use the words "like" and "as." These colorful phrases are used like adverbs or adjectives to describe people , places , things , or actions. You must learn not to take them literally but to enjoy their use. For example:"at night my bedroom is a real icebox or her heart is a fountain of kindness"
you need to use colorful language if you want to make your story interesting and keep your reader occupied.
Writing Friendly Letters
Parts of a friendly letter:
1. The Heading includes your address and the date. Write it in the upper right-hand corner.
2. The Salutation or greeting usually begins with the word Dear and is followed by the name of the person who will receive the letter. Lace a comma after the name. Write a salutation at the left-hand margin, two lines below the heading.
3. The body of the letter contains your thoughts and ideas. Begin writing on the second line after the salutation. Keep the paragraphs short for easy reading.
4. Write the closing two lines below the body of your letter. Capitalize only the first word and follow it with a commas. Put your signature under the closing.
Writing is not just a basic skill Different types of paragraphs
Here we have some definitions of different types of paragrahs:
Persuasive:
A persuasive paragraph gives the writer's opinion on the topic and tries to get the reader to agree with it . When you write a persuasive paragraph , you should give facts and examples to back up your opinion. Otherwise you won't persuade or convince your reader that your opinion is the right one.
Expositoy:
To give information about a topic. It may explain ideas, give directions, or show how to do something. An expository paragraph uses transition words (such as first , second, and most importantly in the model below). These words help guide the reader through the explanation.
Narrative:
You tell a story by sharing the details of an experience come alive.
Descriptive:
Paragraph describes a person , place , thing , or an idea. When you write a descriptive paragraph, you should use words that help your readers see , hear , smell, taste , and feel what you are describing. You should tell your readers what colors things are how big things are , what things sound like , ect. Your readers should feel as if they are right there with you.
Tips Writing a good story
When you write a story make sure you include a setting , plot , atmosphere , character traits and goals. Try not to introduce all the characters at once one point in the story. Make sure you explain the characters with colorful language, such as intelligent , ambitious , contientous , etc., instead of words such as nice , smart , kind, ect.Before you write your story think about what type of story it's going to be such as, gothic (scary), mystery , and comedy. Your story should always have a conclusion at the end of your story. You should have mature vocabulary in your story. This means that you should expand your resources in explaining what words mean. Also, use proper punctuation. Punctuation is what you end your sentences in, such as . ? !. Put a "?" when the sentence asks something , put a period when the sentence is stating , declaring , or demanding something. Use an "!" when the sentence is saying something exciting or shocking. Most importantly use colorful language.
In your story you should try to use similes. A simile is a figure of speech that uses the words "as" or "like." Figures of speech are used like adjectives or adverbs. They modify or describe a person , place , thing , or action word with a colorful and often visual term or phrase. Creative writers and poets make good use of these.
For example:
- as soft as old leather
- as musical as a flute
- sparkled like diamonds.
In your story you should also include metaphors. Metaphors are figures of speech that compare two things but do not use the words "like" and "as." These colorful phrases are used like adverbs or adjectives to describe people , places , things , or actions. You must learn not to take them literally but to enjoy their use. For example:"at night my bedroom is a real icebox or her heart is a fountain of kindness"
you need to use colorful language if you want to make your story interesting and keep your reader occupied.
Writing Friendly Letters
Parts of a friendly letter:
1. The Heading includes your address and the date. Write it in the upper right-hand corner.
2. The Salutation or greeting usually begins with the word Dear and is followed by the name of the person who will receive the letter. Lace a comma after the name. Write a salutation at the left-hand margin, two lines below the heading.
3. The body of the letter contains your thoughts and ideas. Begin writing on the second line after the salutation. Keep the paragraphs short for easy reading.
4. Write the closing two lines below the body of your letter. Capitalize only the first word and follow it with a commas. Put your signature under the closing.
Kind of advertisement:
1. Family advertisement
2. Announcement advertisement
3. Invitation advertisement
4. Request advertisement
5. Article advertisement
6. Offer advertisement
Function of Advertisement
1. Promotion
2. communication
3. Information
In making an Advertisement keep following points:
1. Using the correct of suitable words.
2. Using the interesting and suggestive expression
3. Using positive expression
4. Text of advertisement should be directed to the goals.
Content of Advertisement
1. Objective and honest
2. Brief and clear
3. Not mocking to group or other producer
For example, the ad that I selected is part of an anti-smoking campaign. The advertisement, in bold lettering states, "TOBACCO IS WACKO!!!" and has a cartoon boy coughing profusely. This is obviously a ploy to influence teens to turn away from tobacco use. The words that are used in this campaign are slang as well as urban, which would communicate the best with young people, as opposed to Adults who would generally use different language. Language plays a very important part in advertising.
Listening
Listening is the absorption of the meanings of words and sentences by the brain. Listening leads to the understanding of facts and ideas. But listening takes attention, or sticking to the task at hand in spite of distractions. It requires concentration, which is the focusing of your thoughts upon one particular problem. A person who incorporates listening with concentration is actively listening. Active listening is a method of responding to another that encourages communication.
Listening is a very important skill, especially for tutors. Many tutors tend to talk too much during a tutorial session.This defeats the purpose of tutoring, which is to allow students to learn by discussion. Rather than turning the session into a mini-lecture, tutors must actively listen and encourage their students to become active learners. Giving a student your full attention is sometimes difficult because you start to run out of time, or you find yourself thinking about your next question; however, the time you spend actively listening to your student will result in a quality tutoring session.
Identification
Listening skills are essential in the workplace, the family and in the community at large. Careers in communications, management, planning, sales, and fund raising, to name a few, rely on good listening skills. Listening, however, is more than just being able to hear and understand what someone else says. Listening skills involve etiquette, asking for clarification, showing empathy and providing an appropriate response.
Body Language
Good listening skills include using body language that empowers the speaker. You should make eye contact with the speaker. In a large auditorium or in a classroom, this means keeping your eyes looking at the speaker, not down or gazing at some daydream. Keep your hands down, not folded across your chest. Sit up and look alert.
Respect
People who have good listening skills show respect to the speaker by not interrupting him while he is talking. Even if the speaker stutters or is slow to speak or select his words, patience and restraining yourself from finishing his sentences is a mark of a good listener.
Comprehension
Good listening skills depend on good comprehension. Demonstrate that you understand by restating what you think you have heard. Then ask if you, in fact, did hear correctly. Ask questions that request specific clarification on points that you are unsure about. Be cognizant of the length of time that you speak, making sure not to dominate or usurp the conversation.
Response
Good listening skills are measured by the response of the listener. First, the response should validate the speaker with etiquette and empathy. Next, it should show that the listener understands the message. When the message has been adequately delivered and received, the result should be an action or statement that demonstrates that there has been a transaction between the speaker and the listener.
Listening is a very important skill, especially for tutors. Many tutors tend to talk too much during a tutorial session.This defeats the purpose of tutoring, which is to allow students to learn by discussion. Rather than turning the session into a mini-lecture, tutors must actively listen and encourage their students to become active learners. Giving a student your full attention is sometimes difficult because you start to run out of time, or you find yourself thinking about your next question; however, the time you spend actively listening to your student will result in a quality tutoring session.
Identification
Listening skills are essential in the workplace, the family and in the community at large. Careers in communications, management, planning, sales, and fund raising, to name a few, rely on good listening skills. Listening, however, is more than just being able to hear and understand what someone else says. Listening skills involve etiquette, asking for clarification, showing empathy and providing an appropriate response.
Body Language
Good listening skills include using body language that empowers the speaker. You should make eye contact with the speaker. In a large auditorium or in a classroom, this means keeping your eyes looking at the speaker, not down or gazing at some daydream. Keep your hands down, not folded across your chest. Sit up and look alert.
Respect
People who have good listening skills show respect to the speaker by not interrupting him while he is talking. Even if the speaker stutters or is slow to speak or select his words, patience and restraining yourself from finishing his sentences is a mark of a good listener.
Comprehension
Good listening skills depend on good comprehension. Demonstrate that you understand by restating what you think you have heard. Then ask if you, in fact, did hear correctly. Ask questions that request specific clarification on points that you are unsure about. Be cognizant of the length of time that you speak, making sure not to dominate or usurp the conversation.
Response
Good listening skills are measured by the response of the listener. First, the response should validate the speaker with etiquette and empathy. Next, it should show that the listener understands the message. When the message has been adequately delivered and received, the result should be an action or statement that demonstrates that there has been a transaction between the speaker and the listener.
Perfect Tenses
The present perfect tense is a perfect tense used to express action that has been completed with respect to the present. (The word perfect in its name refers to the idea of completion—of being now finished—rather than to perfection in the sense of "no flaws".) "I have finished" is an example of the present perfect. The present perfect is a compound tense in English (and in many other languages), meaning that it is formed by combining an auxiliary verb with the main verb. For example, in modern English, it is formed by combining a present-tense form of the auxiliary verb "to have" with the past participle of the main verb. In the above example, "have" is the auxiliary verb, whereas the past participle "finished" is the main verb. The two verbs are sometimes labeled "V1" and "V2" in grammar instruction.
Present perfect is formed by combining have/has with the main verb’s past participle form :
- I have arrived
- I have not arrived
- Has she arrived ?
Past perfect tense is a kind of tense that is used to describe an action or an event that started in a certain time in the past and completed or finished till certain time in the past too or past perfect tense is used to express an action or an event that had happened before the other event or action happened.
The pattern :
(+)S+had+VIII+complement
(-)S+had not+VIII+complement
(?)Had+S+VIII+complement
Example :
(+)We had eaten before they come
(-)We had not eaten before they come
(?)Had they eaten before we come ?
Adverbs used :From 1998 to 1999, once, twice, etc
Present perfect is formed by combining have/has with the main verb’s past participle form :
- I have arrived
- I have not arrived
- Has she arrived ?
Past perfect tense is a kind of tense that is used to describe an action or an event that started in a certain time in the past and completed or finished till certain time in the past too or past perfect tense is used to express an action or an event that had happened before the other event or action happened.
The pattern :
(+)S+had+VIII+complement
(-)S+had not+VIII+complement
(?)Had+S+VIII+complement
Example :
(+)We had eaten before they come
(-)We had not eaten before they come
(?)Had they eaten before we come ?
Adverbs used :From 1998 to 1999, once, twice, etc
analyze character
SETTING -- The time and location in which a story takes place is called the setting. For some stories the setting is very important, while for others it is not. There are several aspects of a story's setting to consider when examining how setting contributes to a story (some, or all, may be present in a story):
a) place - geographical location. Where is the action of the story taking place?b) time - When is the story taking place? (historical period, time of day, year, etc)c) weather conditions - Is it rainy, sunny, stormy, etc?d) social conditions - What is the daily life of the characters like? Does the story contain local colour (writing that focuses on the speech, dress, mannerisms, customs, etc. of a particular place)?e) mood or atmosphere - What feeling is created at the beginning of the story? Is it bright and cheerful or dark and frightening?
PLOT -- The plot is how the author arranges events to develop his basic idea; It is the sequence of events in a story or play. The plot is a planned, logical series of events having a beginning, middle, and end. The short story usually has one plot so it can be read in one sitting. There are five essential parts of plot:
a) Introduction - The beginning of the story where the characters and the setting is revealed.
b) Rising Action - This is where the events in the story become complicated and the conflict in the story is revealed (events between the introduction and climax).
c) Climax - This is the highest point of interest and the turning point of the story. The reader wonders what will happen next; will the conflict be resolved or not?
d) Falling action - The events and complications begin to resolve themselves. The reader knows what has happened next and if the conflict was resolved or not (events between climax and denouement).
e) Denouement - This is the final outcome or untangling of events in the story.
It is helpful to consider climax as a three-fold phenomenon: 1) the main character receives new information 2) accepts this information (realizes it but does not necessarily agree with it) 3) acts on this information (makes a choice that will determine whether or not he/she gains his objective).
CONFLICT-- Conflict is essential to plot. Without conflict there is no plot. It is the opposition of forces which ties one incident to another and makes the plot move. Conflict is not merely limited to open arguments, rather it is any form of opposition that faces the main character. Within a short story there may be only one central struggle, or there may be one dominant struggle with many minor ones.
There are two types of conflict:1) External - A struggle with a force outside one's self.
2) Internal - A struggle within one's self; a person must make some decision, overcome pain, quiet their temper, resist an urge, etc.
There are four kinds of conflict:1) Man vs. Man (physical) - The leading character struggles with his physical strength against other men, forces of nature, or animals.
2) Man vs. Circumstances (classical) - The leading character struggles against fate, or the circumstances of life facing him/her.
3) Man vs. Society (social) - The leading character struggles against ideas, practices, or customs of other people.
4) Man vs. Himself/Herself (psychological) - The leading character struggles with himself/herself; with his/her own soul, ideas of right or wrong, physical limitations, choices, etc.
CHARACTER -- There are two meanings for the word character:1) The person in a work of fiction.2) The characteristics of a person.
Persons in a work of fiction - Antagonist and ProtagonistShort stories use few characters. One character is clearly central to the story with all major events having some importance to this character - he/she is the PROTAGONIST. The opposer of the main character is called the ANTAGONIST.
The Characteristics of a Person -In order for a story to seem real to the reader its characters must seem real. Characterization is the information the author gives the reader about the characters themselves. The author may reveal a character in several ways:a) his/her physical appearanceb) what he/she says, thinks, feels and dreamsc) what he/she does or does not dod) what others say about him/her and how others react to him/her
Characters are convincing if they are: consistent, motivated, and life-like (resemble real people)
Characters are...1. Individual - round, many sided and complex personalities.2. Developing - dynamic, many sided personalities that change, for better or worse, by the end of the story.3. Static - Stereotype, have one or two characteristics that never change and are emphasized e.g. brilliant detective, drunk, scrooge, cruel stepmother, etc.
POINT OF VIEW
Point of view, or p.o.v., is defined as the angle from which the story is told.
1. Innocent Eye - The story is told through the eyes of a child (his/her judgment being different from that of an adult) .
2. Stream of Consciousness - The story is told so that the reader feels as if they are inside the head of one character and knows all their thoughts and reactions.
3. First Person - The story is told by the protagonist or one of the characters who interacts closely with the protagonist or other characters (using pronouns I, me, we, etc). The reader sees the story through this person's eyes as he/she experiences it and only knows what he/she knows or feels.
4. Omniscient- The author can narrate the story using the omniscient point of view. He can move from character to character, event to event, having free access to the thoughts, feelings and motivations of his characters and he introduces information where and when he chooses. There are two main types of omniscient point of view:
a) Omniscient Limited - The author tells the story in third person (using pronouns they, she, he, it, etc). We know only what the character knows and what the author allows him/her to tell us. We can see the thoughts and feelings of characters if the author chooses to reveal them to us.
b) Omniscient Objective – The author tells the story in the third person. It appears as though a camera is following the characters, going anywhere, and recording only what is seen and heard. There is no comment on the characters or their thoughts. No interpretations are offered. The reader is placed in the position of spectator without the author there to explain. The reader has to interpret events on his own.
THEME -- The theme in a piece of fiction is its controlling idea or its central insight. It is the author's underlying meaning or main idea that he is trying to convey. The theme may be the author's thoughts about a topic or view of human nature. The title of the short story usually points to what the writer is saying and he may use various figures of speech to emphasize his theme, such as: symbol, allusion, simile, metaphor, hyperbole, or irony.
Some simple examples of common themes from literature, TV, and film are:
- things are not always as they appear to be
- Love is blind- Believe in yourself
- People are afraid of change
- Don't judge a book by its cover
SETTING -- The time and location in which a story takes place is called the setting. For some stories the setting is very important, while for others it is not. There are several aspects of a story's setting to consider when examining how setting contributes to a story (some, or all, may be present in a story):
a) place - geographical location. Where is the action of the story taking place?b) time - When is the story taking place? (historical period, time of day, year, etc)c) weather conditions - Is it rainy, sunny, stormy, etc?d) social conditions - What is the daily life of the characters like? Does the story contain local colour (writing that focuses on the speech, dress, mannerisms, customs, etc. of a particular place)?e) mood or atmosphere - What feeling is created at the beginning of the story? Is it bright and cheerful or dark and frightening?
PLOT -- The plot is how the author arranges events to develop his basic idea; It is the sequence of events in a story or play. The plot is a planned, logical series of events having a beginning, middle, and end. The short story usually has one plot so it can be read in one sitting. There are five essential parts of plot:
a) Introduction - The beginning of the story where the characters and the setting is revealed.
b) Rising Action - This is where the events in the story become complicated and the conflict in the story is revealed (events between the introduction and climax).
c) Climax - This is the highest point of interest and the turning point of the story. The reader wonders what will happen next; will the conflict be resolved or not?
d) Falling action - The events and complications begin to resolve themselves. The reader knows what has happened next and if the conflict was resolved or not (events between climax and denouement).
e) Denouement - This is the final outcome or untangling of events in the story.
It is helpful to consider climax as a three-fold phenomenon: 1) the main character receives new information 2) accepts this information (realizes it but does not necessarily agree with it) 3) acts on this information (makes a choice that will determine whether or not he/she gains his objective).
CONFLICT-- Conflict is essential to plot. Without conflict there is no plot. It is the opposition of forces which ties one incident to another and makes the plot move. Conflict is not merely limited to open arguments, rather it is any form of opposition that faces the main character. Within a short story there may be only one central struggle, or there may be one dominant struggle with many minor ones.
There are two types of conflict:1) External - A struggle with a force outside one's self.
2) Internal - A struggle within one's self; a person must make some decision, overcome pain, quiet their temper, resist an urge, etc.
There are four kinds of conflict:1) Man vs. Man (physical) - The leading character struggles with his physical strength against other men, forces of nature, or animals.
2) Man vs. Circumstances (classical) - The leading character struggles against fate, or the circumstances of life facing him/her.
3) Man vs. Society (social) - The leading character struggles against ideas, practices, or customs of other people.
4) Man vs. Himself/Herself (psychological) - The leading character struggles with himself/herself; with his/her own soul, ideas of right or wrong, physical limitations, choices, etc.
CHARACTER -- There are two meanings for the word character:1) The person in a work of fiction.2) The characteristics of a person.
Persons in a work of fiction - Antagonist and ProtagonistShort stories use few characters. One character is clearly central to the story with all major events having some importance to this character - he/she is the PROTAGONIST. The opposer of the main character is called the ANTAGONIST.
The Characteristics of a Person -In order for a story to seem real to the reader its characters must seem real. Characterization is the information the author gives the reader about the characters themselves. The author may reveal a character in several ways:a) his/her physical appearanceb) what he/she says, thinks, feels and dreamsc) what he/she does or does not dod) what others say about him/her and how others react to him/her
Characters are convincing if they are: consistent, motivated, and life-like (resemble real people)
Characters are...1. Individual - round, many sided and complex personalities.2. Developing - dynamic, many sided personalities that change, for better or worse, by the end of the story.3. Static - Stereotype, have one or two characteristics that never change and are emphasized e.g. brilliant detective, drunk, scrooge, cruel stepmother, etc.
POINT OF VIEW
Point of view, or p.o.v., is defined as the angle from which the story is told.
1. Innocent Eye - The story is told through the eyes of a child (his/her judgment being different from that of an adult) .
2. Stream of Consciousness - The story is told so that the reader feels as if they are inside the head of one character and knows all their thoughts and reactions.
3. First Person - The story is told by the protagonist or one of the characters who interacts closely with the protagonist or other characters (using pronouns I, me, we, etc). The reader sees the story through this person's eyes as he/she experiences it and only knows what he/she knows or feels.
4. Omniscient- The author can narrate the story using the omniscient point of view. He can move from character to character, event to event, having free access to the thoughts, feelings and motivations of his characters and he introduces information where and when he chooses. There are two main types of omniscient point of view:
a) Omniscient Limited - The author tells the story in third person (using pronouns they, she, he, it, etc). We know only what the character knows and what the author allows him/her to tell us. We can see the thoughts and feelings of characters if the author chooses to reveal them to us.
b) Omniscient Objective – The author tells the story in the third person. It appears as though a camera is following the characters, going anywhere, and recording only what is seen and heard. There is no comment on the characters or their thoughts. No interpretations are offered. The reader is placed in the position of spectator without the author there to explain. The reader has to interpret events on his own.
THEME -- The theme in a piece of fiction is its controlling idea or its central insight. It is the author's underlying meaning or main idea that he is trying to convey. The theme may be the author's thoughts about a topic or view of human nature. The title of the short story usually points to what the writer is saying and he may use various figures of speech to emphasize his theme, such as: symbol, allusion, simile, metaphor, hyperbole, or irony.
Some simple examples of common themes from literature, TV, and film are:
- things are not always as they appear to be
- Love is blind- Believe in yourself
- People are afraid of change
- Don't judge a book by its cover
GREETINGS
Do you know about greetings ???
Greetings is an act of communication in which human beings (as well as other members of the animal kingdom) intentionally make their presence known to each other, to show attention to, and to suggest a type of relationship or social status between individuals or groups of people coming in contact with each other.
How do you greet other people ???
1.Good = Morning,Afternoon,Evening,Night.
2.Hello = Friend,....(Name of someone)
3.How = 1.Are you ?
2.Are you getting along?
3.Are you doing?
= Fine, thanks
= Pretty good, thanks
= I'm well, thanks
= Not bad, thanks
4.How's = 1.Everything with you ?
2.Life ?
How do you introduce yourself ???
-Let me introduce my self, my name is ....
-Hello, I'm ....
-Hi, I'm .... You can call me ....
-Hello, My name is ....
How do you introduce other people ???
-I would like to introduce ....
-I would like you to meet ....
-Excuse me, let me introduce you a new friend. His name is ....
-How do you close or end conversation ???
-Well i should be going now. See you !
-Well i must be off now. I'll talk to you later !
-I'm sorry, but i have to go now, It's been nice talking with you. See you later !
How do you close or end conversation ???
-Well i should be going now. See you !
-Well i must be off now. I'll talk to you later !
-I'm sorry, but i have to go now, It's been nice talking with you. See you later !
Greetings is an act of communication in which human beings (as well as other members of the animal kingdom) intentionally make their presence known to each other, to show attention to, and to suggest a type of relationship or social status between individuals or groups of people coming in contact with each other.
How do you greet other people ???
1.Good = Morning,Afternoon,Evening,Night.
2.Hello = Friend,....(Name of someone)
3.How = 1.Are you ?
2.Are you getting along?
3.Are you doing?
= Fine, thanks
= Pretty good, thanks
= I'm well, thanks
= Not bad, thanks
4.How's = 1.Everything with you ?
2.Life ?
How do you introduce yourself ???
-Let me introduce my self, my name is ....
-Hello, I'm ....
-Hi, I'm .... You can call me ....
-Hello, My name is ....
How do you introduce other people ???
-I would like to introduce ....
-I would like you to meet ....
-Excuse me, let me introduce you a new friend. His name is ....
-How do you close or end conversation ???
-Well i should be going now. See you !
-Well i must be off now. I'll talk to you later !
-I'm sorry, but i have to go now, It's been nice talking with you. See you later !
How do you close or end conversation ???
-Well i should be going now. See you !
-Well i must be off now. I'll talk to you later !
-I'm sorry, but i have to go now, It's been nice talking with you. See you later !
Rabu, 24 Februari 2010
Present Tense
1.Simple Present Tense
Simple Present Tense adalah bentuk waktu yang digunakan untuk menyatakan perbuatan yang sedang dikerjakan atau sesuatu yang menjadi kebiasaan sehari-hari.
Ciri-ciri keterangannya antara lain :
Everyday, every Sunday, every month, every year, etc.
Rumus Nominal :
I/You/We/They+to be (am/are)
He/She/It+to be (is)
-They are at market every morning
-She is very lovely
Rumus Verbal :
I/You/We/They+VI
He/She/It+VI(s/es)
-They go to cinema every Saturday night
-She watches TV in the night
2.Present Continuous Tense
Bentuk waktu yang digunakan untuk menyatakan perbuatan yang sedang berlangsung.
Ciri keterangan yang digunakan :
Now, right now, today, etc
Rumus :
I/You/We/They+to be (am/are)+VI ing
He/She/It+to be (is) + VI ing
-We are studying English now
-She is listening the radio
3.Present Perfect Tense
Suatu bentuk kalimat yang menyatakan suatu perbuatan yang telah dikerjakan.
Biasanya present perfect ditandai kata :
Since 1995, 3 times, etc
Rumus Nominal :
I/You/We/They+have+been
He/She/It+has+been
-She has been shot by me just now
Rumus Verbal :
I/You/We/They+have+VIII
He/She/It+has+VIII
-I have eaten
Simple Present Tense adalah bentuk waktu yang digunakan untuk menyatakan perbuatan yang sedang dikerjakan atau sesuatu yang menjadi kebiasaan sehari-hari.
Ciri-ciri keterangannya antara lain :
Everyday, every Sunday, every month, every year, etc.
Rumus Nominal :
I/You/We/They+to be (am/are)
He/She/It+to be (is)
-They are at market every morning
-She is very lovely
Rumus Verbal :
I/You/We/They+VI
He/She/It+VI(s/es)
-They go to cinema every Saturday night
-She watches TV in the night
2.Present Continuous Tense
Bentuk waktu yang digunakan untuk menyatakan perbuatan yang sedang berlangsung.
Ciri keterangan yang digunakan :
Now, right now, today, etc
Rumus :
I/You/We/They+to be (am/are)+VI ing
He/She/It+to be (is) + VI ing
-We are studying English now
-She is listening the radio
3.Present Perfect Tense
Suatu bentuk kalimat yang menyatakan suatu perbuatan yang telah dikerjakan.
Biasanya present perfect ditandai kata :
Since 1995, 3 times, etc
Rumus Nominal :
I/You/We/They+have+been
He/She/It+has+been
-She has been shot by me just now
Rumus Verbal :
I/You/We/They+have+VIII
He/She/It+has+VIII
-I have eaten
Past Tense
1.Simple Past Tense
Bentuk waktu yang menyatakan suatu perbuatan yang terjadi di masa lampau dan tidak ada hubungannya dengan masa sekarang.
Ciri penandanya :
Last week, yesterday, last years, ago
Rumus Nominal :
You/They/We+to be (were)
I/He/She/It+to be (was)
-I was here last night
-They were happy last week
Rumus Verbal :
I/You/We/They/He/She/It+Verb II
-I went last week
2.Past Continuous Tense
Bentuk waktu yang digunakan untuk menyatakan peristiwa yang sedang berlangsung di masa lampau.
Rumus :
I/He/She/It+was+VI+ing
We/You/They+were+VI+ing
-I was writing a lesson all day, yesterday
-They were studying math yesterday
3.Past Perfect Tense
Bentuk waktu yang digunakan untuk menyatakan suatu kejadian di masa lalu yang sempurna selesai sebelum perbuatan lain dilakukan.
Rumus Nominal :
I/You/We/They/He/She/It+had+been
-He had been at home
Rumus Verbal :
I/You/We/They/He/She/It+had+VIII
-I had left before my parents come
4.Past Perfect Continuous Tense
Bentuk waktu yang digunakan untuk menyatakan suatu kejadian di masa lampau yang berlangsung sebelum terjadi peristiwa lain.
Rumus :
I/You/We/They/He/She/It+had+been+VI+ing
-When I came from Amsterdam in 1995, she had been living there about 5 years.
Bentuk waktu yang menyatakan suatu perbuatan yang terjadi di masa lampau dan tidak ada hubungannya dengan masa sekarang.
Ciri penandanya :
Last week, yesterday, last years, ago
Rumus Nominal :
You/They/We+to be (were)
I/He/She/It+to be (was)
-I was here last night
-They were happy last week
Rumus Verbal :
I/You/We/They/He/She/It+Verb II
-I went last week
2.Past Continuous Tense
Bentuk waktu yang digunakan untuk menyatakan peristiwa yang sedang berlangsung di masa lampau.
Rumus :
I/He/She/It+was+VI+ing
We/You/They+were+VI+ing
-I was writing a lesson all day, yesterday
-They were studying math yesterday
3.Past Perfect Tense
Bentuk waktu yang digunakan untuk menyatakan suatu kejadian di masa lalu yang sempurna selesai sebelum perbuatan lain dilakukan.
Rumus Nominal :
I/You/We/They/He/She/It+had+been
-He had been at home
Rumus Verbal :
I/You/We/They/He/She/It+had+VIII
-I had left before my parents come
4.Past Perfect Continuous Tense
Bentuk waktu yang digunakan untuk menyatakan suatu kejadian di masa lampau yang berlangsung sebelum terjadi peristiwa lain.
Rumus :
I/You/We/They/He/She/It+had+been+VI+ing
-When I came from Amsterdam in 1995, she had been living there about 5 years.
Procedure Text
The generic structures of procedure text are
1. Goal/aim (or title)
2. Materials (not required for all procedural texts)
3. Utensils
4. Steps (the actions that must be taken)
Example of Procedure Text
Goal/aim: "How to Make Orange Tea"
Materials: 1 orange, sweet tea, soda drink (use uncoloured soda), and ice.
Utensils: Jug, knife, spoon, and drinking glass.
Steps:
1. Cut the orange into circle shapes, try to cut it thinly.
2. Put the cut orange and ice into jug.
3. Pour the soda drink into the jug.
4. Add the already prepared sweet tea.
5. Stir the ingredients in the jug well.
6. After pouring the orange tea in a glass, you can decorate the brim of the glass with left over orange pieces.
1. Goal/aim (or title)
2. Materials (not required for all procedural texts)
3. Utensils
4. Steps (the actions that must be taken)
Example of Procedure Text
Goal/aim: "How to Make Orange Tea"
Materials: 1 orange, sweet tea, soda drink (use uncoloured soda), and ice.
Utensils: Jug, knife, spoon, and drinking glass.
Steps:
1. Cut the orange into circle shapes, try to cut it thinly.
2. Put the cut orange and ice into jug.
3. Pour the soda drink into the jug.
4. Add the already prepared sweet tea.
5. Stir the ingredients in the jug well.
6. After pouring the orange tea in a glass, you can decorate the brim of the glass with left over orange pieces.
Narrative Texts
It is important to know that the social function of the narrative text is to inform and entertain. Narrative text will tell the story with amusing way. It provides an esthetic literary experience to the reader. Narrative text is written based on life experience. In literary term, experience is what we do, feel, hear, read, even what we dream.
Narrative text is organized focusing at character oriented. It is build using descriptive familiar language and dialogue. There are some genres of literary text which fit to be classified as the narrative text. Some of them are:
Folktales, it includes fables, legend, myth, or realistic tales
Mysteries, fantasy, science or realistic fiction
Commonly, narrative text is organized by the story of grammar. It will be beginning, middle and end of the story. To build this story grammar, narrative text need plot. This plot will determine the quality of the story. Plot is a series of episodes which holds the reader’ attention while they are reading the story.
Conflict is the main important element of the plot. This conflict among the characters will drive the story progress. In this conflict, readers will be shown how the characters face the problem and how they have ability to handle that problem
Example of Narrative Text: "The Smartest Parrot"
Once upon time, a man had a wonderful parrot. There was no other parrot like it. The parrot could say every word, except one word. The parrot would not say the name of the place where it was born. The name of the place was Catano.
The man felt excited having the smartest parrot but he could not understand why the parrot would not say Catano. The man tried to teach the bird to say Catano however the bird kept not saying the word.
At the first, the man was very nice to the bird but then he got very angry. “You stupid bird!” pointed the man to the parrot. “Why can’t you say the word? Say Catano! Or I will kill you” the man said angrily. Although he tried hard to teach, the parrot would not say it. Then the man got so angry and shouted to the bird over and over; “Say Catano or I’ll kill you”. The bird kept not to say the word of Catano.
One day, after he had been trying so many times to make the bird say Catano, the man really got very angry. He could not bear it. He picked the parrot and threw it into the chicken house. There were four old chickens for next dinner “You are as stupid as the chickens. Just stay with them” Said the man angrily. Then he continued to humble; “You know, I will cut the chicken for my meal. Next it will be your turn, I will eat you too, stupid parrot”. After that he left the chicken house.
The next day, the man came back to the chicken house. He opened the door and was very surprised. He could not believe what he saw at the chicken house. There were three death chickens on the floor. At the moment, the parrot was standing proudly and screaming at the last old chicken; “Say Catano or I’ll kill you”
Analysis the Generic Structure:
Orientation: It sets the scene and introduces the participants/characters. In that parrot story, the first paragraph is the orientation where reader finds time and place set up and also the participant as the background of the story. A man and his parrot took place once time.
Complication: It explores the conflict in the story. It will show the crisis, rising crisis and climax of the story. In the parrot story, paragraph 2, 3, 4 are describing the complication. Readers will find that the man face a problem of why the parrot can not say Catano. To fix this problem, the man attempted to teach the bird. How hard he tried to teach the bird is the excitement element of the complication.
Resolution: It shows the situation which the problems have been resolved. It must be our note that “resolved” means accomplished whether succeed or fail. In the last paragraph of the smartest parrot story, readers see the problem is finished. The parrot could talk the word which the man wanted. The parrot said the word with higher degree than the man taught the word to it. That was the smartest parrot.
Narrative text is organized focusing at character oriented. It is build using descriptive familiar language and dialogue. There are some genres of literary text which fit to be classified as the narrative text. Some of them are:
Folktales, it includes fables, legend, myth, or realistic tales
Mysteries, fantasy, science or realistic fiction
Commonly, narrative text is organized by the story of grammar. It will be beginning, middle and end of the story. To build this story grammar, narrative text need plot. This plot will determine the quality of the story. Plot is a series of episodes which holds the reader’ attention while they are reading the story.
Conflict is the main important element of the plot. This conflict among the characters will drive the story progress. In this conflict, readers will be shown how the characters face the problem and how they have ability to handle that problem
Example of Narrative Text: "The Smartest Parrot"
Once upon time, a man had a wonderful parrot. There was no other parrot like it. The parrot could say every word, except one word. The parrot would not say the name of the place where it was born. The name of the place was Catano.
The man felt excited having the smartest parrot but he could not understand why the parrot would not say Catano. The man tried to teach the bird to say Catano however the bird kept not saying the word.
At the first, the man was very nice to the bird but then he got very angry. “You stupid bird!” pointed the man to the parrot. “Why can’t you say the word? Say Catano! Or I will kill you” the man said angrily. Although he tried hard to teach, the parrot would not say it. Then the man got so angry and shouted to the bird over and over; “Say Catano or I’ll kill you”. The bird kept not to say the word of Catano.
One day, after he had been trying so many times to make the bird say Catano, the man really got very angry. He could not bear it. He picked the parrot and threw it into the chicken house. There were four old chickens for next dinner “You are as stupid as the chickens. Just stay with them” Said the man angrily. Then he continued to humble; “You know, I will cut the chicken for my meal. Next it will be your turn, I will eat you too, stupid parrot”. After that he left the chicken house.
The next day, the man came back to the chicken house. He opened the door and was very surprised. He could not believe what he saw at the chicken house. There were three death chickens on the floor. At the moment, the parrot was standing proudly and screaming at the last old chicken; “Say Catano or I’ll kill you”
Analysis the Generic Structure:
Orientation: It sets the scene and introduces the participants/characters. In that parrot story, the first paragraph is the orientation where reader finds time and place set up and also the participant as the background of the story. A man and his parrot took place once time.
Complication: It explores the conflict in the story. It will show the crisis, rising crisis and climax of the story. In the parrot story, paragraph 2, 3, 4 are describing the complication. Readers will find that the man face a problem of why the parrot can not say Catano. To fix this problem, the man attempted to teach the bird. How hard he tried to teach the bird is the excitement element of the complication.
Resolution: It shows the situation which the problems have been resolved. It must be our note that “resolved” means accomplished whether succeed or fail. In the last paragraph of the smartest parrot story, readers see the problem is finished. The parrot could talk the word which the man wanted. The parrot said the word with higher degree than the man taught the word to it. That was the smartest parrot.
Recount Tetxts
When writing recounts, we should:
1. Focus on individual people
2. Use words which indicate when
3. Where to events took place
4. Use of simple past tense
5. Use action words
6. Use of temporal conjunctions (when, after, before, next, later, then)
7. Use of personal pronoun (I, we)
The generic structures of recount text are:
1. Orientation ( it gives the readers the background information needed to understand the text such as who was involved, where it happened, when it happened)
2. Events (a series of events, ordered in a chronological sequence)
3. Re-orientation (restates the writer’s opinion or personal comment of the writer on the incident)
Factual Recount
1. Orientation (who were involved in the story, when and where)
2. Event (tell what happened in a chronological order)
Example of recount text
"RA Kartini"
Every April 21, people in Indonesia commemorate the Kartini day. It is
a beautiful day for the woman because we celebrate the birth of great
lady, RA. Kartini. Everyone knows who kartini is. She is our national
heroine and a great lady with the bright idea.
Kartini was born in 1879, April 21 in Mayong Jepara. Her father was
RMAA. Sosroningrat, Wedana (assistant of head of regency) in Mayong.
Her mother, MA Ngasirah was a girl from Teluk Awur village in Jepara.
As the daughter of a noble family, she felt luck because she got more
than the ordinary people got. She got better education than other
children. She did anything she wants although it was forbidden. She
passed her childhood with her brother and sister. Because she was very
energetic, her father called her "trinil"
Then her father was chosen as Bupati (the head of regency) in Jepara.
She and her family then moved from Mayong to Jepara. In the same year,
Kartini's second sister RA Kardinah was born. The environment in Jepara
gave her big chance to develop her idea. She could study at the Dutch
owned school where only children from noble family could study here.
Few years after finishing her study, RA. Kartini was willing to
continue her study in higher level. But the custom of that day forbid a
woman to go to school. A tradition of that time, a teenage girl should
be secluded and limited her activity. So was Kartini. She was secluded
inside the house and forbidden to go out until a man propose her. The
rule could restrict her body but not her mind. During her "pingitan"
time, she spent her time by reading book which she got from her
relatives.
Although she was not able to continue her study to higher level, she
was smart had a bright idea. She got the knowledge from the books she
read. To express her idea, she established a school for local people on
the backyard of Jepara city hall.
In November 12,1903, she married Adipati Djoyodiningrat, the head of
Rembang regency. According to Javanese tradition Kartini had to follow
her husband. Then she moved to Rembang.
In September 13, 1904 she gave a birth to her son. His name was
Singgih. But after giving birth to a son, her condition was getting
worse and she finally passed away on September 17, 1904 on her 25 years
old.
Now Kartini has gone. But her spirit and dream will always be in our
heart. Nowadays Indonesian women progress is influenced by Kartini's
spirit stated on collection of letter "Habis gelap terbitlah terang"
from the dusk to the dawn.
1. Focus on individual people
2. Use words which indicate when
3. Where to events took place
4. Use of simple past tense
5. Use action words
6. Use of temporal conjunctions (when, after, before, next, later, then)
7. Use of personal pronoun (I, we)
The generic structures of recount text are:
1. Orientation ( it gives the readers the background information needed to understand the text such as who was involved, where it happened, when it happened)
2. Events (a series of events, ordered in a chronological sequence)
3. Re-orientation (restates the writer’s opinion or personal comment of the writer on the incident)
Factual Recount
1. Orientation (who were involved in the story, when and where)
2. Event (tell what happened in a chronological order)
Example of recount text
"RA Kartini"
Every April 21, people in Indonesia commemorate the Kartini day. It is
a beautiful day for the woman because we celebrate the birth of great
lady, RA. Kartini. Everyone knows who kartini is. She is our national
heroine and a great lady with the bright idea.
Kartini was born in 1879, April 21 in Mayong Jepara. Her father was
RMAA. Sosroningrat, Wedana (assistant of head of regency) in Mayong.
Her mother, MA Ngasirah was a girl from Teluk Awur village in Jepara.
As the daughter of a noble family, she felt luck because she got more
than the ordinary people got. She got better education than other
children. She did anything she wants although it was forbidden. She
passed her childhood with her brother and sister. Because she was very
energetic, her father called her "trinil"
Then her father was chosen as Bupati (the head of regency) in Jepara.
She and her family then moved from Mayong to Jepara. In the same year,
Kartini's second sister RA Kardinah was born. The environment in Jepara
gave her big chance to develop her idea. She could study at the Dutch
owned school where only children from noble family could study here.
Few years after finishing her study, RA. Kartini was willing to
continue her study in higher level. But the custom of that day forbid a
woman to go to school. A tradition of that time, a teenage girl should
be secluded and limited her activity. So was Kartini. She was secluded
inside the house and forbidden to go out until a man propose her. The
rule could restrict her body but not her mind. During her "pingitan"
time, she spent her time by reading book which she got from her
relatives.
Although she was not able to continue her study to higher level, she
was smart had a bright idea. She got the knowledge from the books she
read. To express her idea, she established a school for local people on
the backyard of Jepara city hall.
In November 12,1903, she married Adipati Djoyodiningrat, the head of
Rembang regency. According to Javanese tradition Kartini had to follow
her husband. Then she moved to Rembang.
In September 13, 1904 she gave a birth to her son. His name was
Singgih. But after giving birth to a son, her condition was getting
worse and she finally passed away on September 17, 1904 on her 25 years
old.
Now Kartini has gone. But her spirit and dream will always be in our
heart. Nowadays Indonesian women progress is influenced by Kartini's
spirit stated on collection of letter "Habis gelap terbitlah terang"
from the dusk to the dawn.
Announcement
The definition of announcement
¨Announcement is something said, written, or printed to make known what has happened or (more often) what will happen.”
In writing an announcement, keep the following points
1. The title/type of event,
2. Date/time, place and
3. Contact person
You can hear announcements at an airport or at a train station. They tell important information — for example, which airplanes are arriving or departing, and how to get on these airplanes.
Example of announcement
"AQUARIUS P=OPENING"
DATE:
Tuesday, June 9th, 2000
TIME:
Networking 5:30 pm, Dinner 6:30 pm, Program 7:15 pm
TICKET PRICE:
$20
DESCRIPTION:
Our speaker will be:
Rico Rawkin,
Boss of Aquarius
LOCATION:
Aquarius Hotel
61 I-463 south (at imam bonjol)
323-0987
FOR MORE INFORMATION AND DINNER RESERVATIONS:
Please call the AITP Voice Mail System at 456-1456
Or email us at aqua.rius@itmweb.com
Visitors are always welcome.
RESERVATIONS ARE IMPORTANT.
¨Announcement is something said, written, or printed to make known what has happened or (more often) what will happen.”
In writing an announcement, keep the following points
1. The title/type of event,
2. Date/time, place and
3. Contact person
You can hear announcements at an airport or at a train station. They tell important information — for example, which airplanes are arriving or departing, and how to get on these airplanes.
Example of announcement
"AQUARIUS P=OPENING"
DATE:
Tuesday, June 9th, 2000
TIME:
Networking 5:30 pm, Dinner 6:30 pm, Program 7:15 pm
TICKET PRICE:
$20
DESCRIPTION:
Our speaker will be:
Rico Rawkin,
Boss of Aquarius
LOCATION:
Aquarius Hotel
61 I-463 south (at imam bonjol)
323-0987
FOR MORE INFORMATION AND DINNER RESERVATIONS:
Please call the AITP Voice Mail System at 456-1456
Or email us at aqua.rius@itmweb.com
Visitors are always welcome.
RESERVATIONS ARE IMPORTANT.
Giving Instruction
The definition of Giving Instruction
Giving Instruction is an expression that is used in order that other person does what we instruct or request.
The different between instructions and request
Instructions (also called imperatives). Instructions require the person receiving them to do something, or to stop doing it. Instructions are directly addressed to the person who has to do them. Therefore, instructions are one of the few types of English sentences that do not need a subject. The subject is usually "you" (understood). If there is any doubt who should do the instruction, the "naming" form - the vocative is used.
Requests are often questions, though indirect requests may not be. Sometimes an instruction is changed into a request by the addition of "please" or a question tag. To make a request more polite we might use the subjunctive form of the verb. Very often English requests are indirect. Instead of asking someone to do something, the speaker asks if the person is able to do it. Therefore modals of ability ("can", "may" etc) are very often used.
Giving Instruction divisible consist instruct that is
Order, prohibition.
Order (verb I + object)
◈ Close the door, please
◈ Read this book!
◈ Stop crying William!
Prohibition (don’t + verb I + object)
◈ Don’t open the door
◈ Don’t cut this paper
◈ Don’t come here
Giving Instruction is an expression that is used in order that other person does what we instruct or request.
The different between instructions and request
Instructions (also called imperatives). Instructions require the person receiving them to do something, or to stop doing it. Instructions are directly addressed to the person who has to do them. Therefore, instructions are one of the few types of English sentences that do not need a subject. The subject is usually "you" (understood). If there is any doubt who should do the instruction, the "naming" form - the vocative is used.
Requests are often questions, though indirect requests may not be. Sometimes an instruction is changed into a request by the addition of "please" or a question tag. To make a request more polite we might use the subjunctive form of the verb. Very often English requests are indirect. Instead of asking someone to do something, the speaker asks if the person is able to do it. Therefore modals of ability ("can", "may" etc) are very often used.
Giving Instruction divisible consist instruct that is
Order, prohibition.
Order (verb I + object)
◈ Close the door, please
◈ Read this book!
◈ Stop crying William!
Prohibition (don’t + verb I + object)
◈ Don’t open the door
◈ Don’t cut this paper
◈ Don’t come here
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