Sabtu, 27 Februari 2010

Direct and Indirect Speech
When using indirect or reported speech, the form changes. Usually indirect speech is introduced by the verb said, as in I said, Bill said, or they said. Using the verb say in this tense, indicates that something was said in the past. In these cases, the main verb in the reported sentence is put in the past. If the main verb is already in a past tense, then the tense changes to another past tense; it can almost be seen as moving even further into the past.
Verb tense changes also characterize other situations using indirect speech. Note the changes shown in the chart and see the table below for examples. With indirect speech, the use of that is optional.
Direct Speech
Þ
Indirect Speech
simple presentHe said, “I go to school every day.”
Þ
simple pastHe said (that) he went to school every day.
simple past He said, “I went to school every day.”
Þ
past perfectHe said (that) he had gone to school every day.
present perfect He said, “I have gone to school every day.”
Þ
past perfect He said (that) he had gone to school every day.
present progressiveHe said, “I am going to school every day.”
Þ
past progressiveHe said (that) he was going to school every day.
past progressiveHe said, “I was going to school every day.”
Þ
perfect progressiveHe said (that) he had been going to school every day,
future (will)He said, “I will go to school every day.”
Þ
would + verb nameHe said (that) he would go to school every day.
future (going to)He said, “I am going to school every day.”
Þ
present progressiveHe said (that) he is going to school every day.

past progressiveHe said (that) he was going to school every day
Direct Speech
Þ
Indirect Speech
auxiliary + verb nameHe said, “Do you go to school every day?”He said, “Where do you go to school?”
Þ
simple pastHe asked me if I went to school every day.*He asked me where I went to school.
imperativeHe said, “Go to school every day.”
Þ
infinitiveHe said to go to school every day.

*Note than when a Yes/No question is being asked in direct speech, then a construction with if or whether is used. If a WH question is being asked, then use the WH to introduce the clause. Also note that with indirect speech, these are examples of embedded questions.
The situation changes if instead of the common said another part of the very to say is used. In that case the verb tenses usually remain the same. Some examples of this situation are given below.

Direct Speech
Þ
Indirect Speech
simple present + simple presentHe says, “I go to school every day.”
Þ
simple present + simple presentHe says (that) he goes to school every day.
present perfect + simple presentHe has said, “I go to school every day.”
Þ
present perfect + simple presentHe has said (that) he goes to school every day.
past progressive + simple pastHe was saying, “I went to school every day.”
Þ
past progressive + simple pastHe was saying (that) he went to school every day.

past progressive + past perfectHe was saying (that) he had gone to school every day.
future + simple presentHe will say, “I go to school every day.”
Þ
future + simple presentHe will say (that) he goes to school every day.

Another situation is the one in which modal constructions are used. If the verb said is used, then the form of the modal, or another modal that has a past meaning is used.

Direct Speech
Þ
Indirect Speech
canHe said, “I can go to school every day.”
Þ
couldHe said (that) he could go to school every day.
mayHe said, “I may go to school every day.”
Þ
mightHe said (that) he might go to school every day.
mightHe said, “I might go to school every day.”


mustHe said, “I must go to school every day.”
Þ
had toHe said (that) he had to go to school every day.
have toHe said, “I have to go to school every day.”


shouldHe said, “I should go to school every day.”
Þ
shouldHe said (that) he should go to school every day.
ought toHe said, “I ought to go to school every day.”
Þ
ought toHe said (that) he ought to go to school every day.

While not all of the possibilities have been listed here, there are enough to provide examples of the main rules governing the use of indirect or reported speech. For other situations, try to extrapolate from the examples here, or better still, refer to a good grammar text or reference book.
Some other verbs that can be used to introduce direct speech are: ask, report, tell, announce, suggest, and inquire. They are not used interchangeably; check a grammar or usage book for further information.

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